How modernity arises through various theories

How modernity arises through various theories Charles Taylor two theories of modernity Modernization is a term that is usually used to distinguish the present from the traditional or earlier aspects. While there are many ways of distinguishing the present from the old, we might wonder how modernity arises. Many scholars have tried to explain how modernity arises through various theories. This paper will focus on Charles Taylor two theories of modernity. Charles Taylor postulated that modernity is not a form of life but a movement from one constellation to another. He appreciated that there are two perspectives from which modernity arises; cultural and acultural. In the cultural model, each human group has its own identity, language, virtues, vices, specific understanding of humanity and social relations. These aspects may undergo transformations with time and this influences the culture of that particular group. At this point, we have to admit that there is a difference before and after transformation, the culture will have changed by the time these transformations are manifested (Charles,). In the acultural model, Charles tries to distinguish the present from the past as a whole. In this case, he does not look at transformation from a single culture perspective but the changes that occur to all cultures within a stipulated period of time. In this model, modernity is conceived by growth of reason for instance growth of scientific consciousness or though differentiating between fact finding and evaluation. In this case, the modernity is accounted for by intellectual and social changes. An example of this was during the ages of reason and enlightenment, industrialization and urbanization. There were imminent transformations in all cultures. While each culture has to go through these transformations, some are forced to undergo these transformations (Charles,). Acultural modernity is such that each culture plays a principle role and is not defined by an end point in understanding these transformations from either a personal or societal perspective. Though this kind of modernity is culture neutral, it affects all cultures either positively or negatively. Sometimes, some culture may suffer from the impact of a transformation in modernity. Transformations usually arise in one culture or civilization and spread to the rest. The culture from which transformation starts is powered by its own positive visions for good. However, some cultures undergo though these transformations easily while others have a hard time. This is characterized by the difference the transformation will serve in that particular culture and not when the idea of the transformation arrived in this culture. Charles appreciated the fact that transformations are facilitated by having certain values and understanding of things. Each culture has different perspectives on different transformations depending on their values and understanding of that transformation. In fact many developments and transformations in the last few centuries were based on culture neutral developments. Acultural theory is dominant over cultural because it shows transition from traditional beliefs to modern way of life. This may be described in scenarios such as those of urbanization and industrialization. Transformation of this type may influence cultures positively or negatively. Those cultures that valued traditional beliefs and have narrow scientific reason have difficulties in appreciating transformation. At this point, we might wonder which theory is good and which is bad. However, there is no good or bad theory as they explain transition to modernity and show how traditional beliefs are lost. Though cultural theory is of the point of view in which we visualize one culture among others, we cannot overemphasize the fact that the first accounts of modernization and development were acultural. As most scholars believe, Charles denotes that cultural theories make value judgements impossible, acultural theories are believed to be materialistic. Despite these negative attitudes towards these theories, Charles emphasizes that they play an important role in the concept of modernization. All in all, we cannot disregard that modernization is as a result of social and intellectual change. Charles notes that after the seventeenth century, there was imminent transformation arising from the western modernity and after these transformations, natural science was valid and the technology that accompanied this had efficacy. These transformations were embraced in some cultures while others were forced to appreciate them. Different cultures have different beliefs and through acultural theory, these civilizations are bound to come together. All civilizations will lose their traditional beliefs even those that resisted the challenge. The road to modernity eventually ends when all civilizations look alike. Different civilizations will understand these transformations differently and have different perspectives on them. There are several levels of understanding transformations; the divine, cosmos and embodied understanding. Charles acknowledges that these different levels of understanding bring about changes in belief and shift in views of the possibilities. In this case, there are people for certain transformations while are others are against. Charles gave the example that people believed there is God but when their views changed, there was conception of atheist. This purely based on ones view and horizon or what they believe in depending on their understanding towards a certain concept. Although acultural theory is dominant over cultural theory of modernity, there are some limitations. This theory does not clearly show the originality of the western modernity and the fact that we tend to underestimate the nature of this transformation. Charles disregards that though modernity started in the west, it is not western specifically but a form of life where all cultures converge. It is unfortunate that some civilizations lose whatever they believe in just to hold on other transformations. This pattern lacks what Charles called rational justification. Acultural theory puts all civilizations in the same package of transformation. Charles Taylor argues that if a civilization fails to note its contrast with other civilizations, it will have a distorted understanding of forthcoming transformations and people in that civilization will have self misunderstanding which can be very costly to the civilization. In this case, the civilizations knowledge and background is suppressed. In other words, this may be termed as a form of colonization. It may seem that this civilization does not know itself and the relation it has to other civilizations. Despite the truths of acultural theory on evolution of modernity, it is worth noting that a change only moves us from constellation to another which throws up its values and traditions to move to the other. This is in support of the cultural theory of modernization. There are varied views on the cultural and acultural theories of modernity. While some support one theory and disregard the other, others have negative and positive attributes of both cultures. However, we have to appreciate that though some of these facts may be true, both theories have played a significant role in explaining modernity. According to Charles, modernity has presented numerous problems in social science. Modernity is combination new practices, way of life and single forms neutral phenomenon. Charles acknowledges that there are multiple modernities which are products of depending on the self understanding and practices of different civilizations. References Charles Taylor. Two theories of modernity.

Animal Farm, by George Orwell :: Animal Farm Essays

The Novel Animal Farm, was written by George Orwell. This story takes place on a farm where the animals revolt against the human owner of the land and take control of the farm. During the reign of the animals, many conflicts occur over who holds the most power and who should be making all of the decisions on be-half of the rest of the animals. Eventually Napolean gains power over Snowball. This causes many problems on the farm because Napolean uses much of the money to entertain himself and does not take necessary action to help the rest of the animals. The author chose to name the book "Animal Farm" because in a literal term, the animals own and run the farm. This is clearly shown in the book when we see the animals force the human owner off the farm and they begin to run everything that happens. This novel belongs to the modern period of British Literature. During this time period, a significant resemblance can be seen between the context of the novel and communism. The two pigs, Napolean and Snowball, represent the leaders of communism, Stalin and Trotsky. While they hold the power, they both have differing views and attempt to gain a superior power over the other. When Napolean gains total control, it represents what communism turned out to be. This involved one leader controlling the entire body of people and forcing his ways on everyone else. The author’s point of view is that communism is something that should have never come into existence. He believes that all the power should not belong to one person because that single person will take advantage of their power and use it to their advantage. The effect of this is that it gives the reader the idea that nothing good can come of communism. This makes everyone who reads the novel believe what he believes. This can be a reliable source because what is written in context truly represents history. Orwell describes his characters indirectly. This is because of the resemblance to the history of communism. Some of the characters were meant to represent an actual human being that once lived, so the description of that character can be taken from the character traits of the actual person that they represent. Animal Farm, by George Orwell :: Animal Farm Essays The Novel Animal Farm, was written by George Orwell. This story takes place on a farm where the animals revolt against the human owner of the land and take control of the farm. During the reign of the animals, many conflicts occur over who holds the most power and who should be making all of the decisions on be-half of the rest of the animals. Eventually Napolean gains power over Snowball. This causes many problems on the farm because Napolean uses much of the money to entertain himself and does not take necessary action to help the rest of the animals. The author chose to name the book "Animal Farm" because in a literal term, the animals own and run the farm. This is clearly shown in the book when we see the animals force the human owner off the farm and they begin to run everything that happens. This novel belongs to the modern period of British Literature. During this time period, a significant resemblance can be seen between the context of the novel and communism. The two pigs, Napolean and Snowball, represent the leaders of communism, Stalin and Trotsky. While they hold the power, they both have differing views and attempt to gain a superior power over the other. When Napolean gains total control, it represents what communism turned out to be. This involved one leader controlling the entire body of people and forcing his ways on everyone else. The author’s point of view is that communism is something that should have never come into existence. He believes that all the power should not belong to one person because that single person will take advantage of their power and use it to their advantage. The effect of this is that it gives the reader the idea that nothing good can come of communism. This makes everyone who reads the novel believe what he believes. This can be a reliable source because what is written in context truly represents history. Orwell describes his characters indirectly. This is because of the resemblance to the history of communism. Some of the characters were meant to represent an actual human being that once lived, so the description of that character can be taken from the character traits of the actual person that they represent.

Rewarding and Punishment the Same Behavior Essay

What type of reinforcement schedule does random drug testing represent? Is this type of schedule typically effective or ineffective? Answer: The case study â€Å"Professional sports: Rewarding and punishment the same behavior† was about how in a baseball game steroids are being used and the offense which has been caused by it. The type of reinforcement schedule discuss in this case was the random drug testing which presents the fact that most of the times baseball players are not aware of the point that they are taking drugs. This is because they don’t take it intentially but given by their coaches to improve performance of the player in game. According to the case I agree with the decision of commissioner of the baseball. According to his decision, he gave a second chance to the players who did not know that their coaches were giving them drugs. Whereas, he declared a ten day suspension for the first time offenders from playing the game. But congress and the general public was not satisfied so the commissioner incorporated tougher rules to play in the game such as the â€Å"three strikes, and you are out† policy wherein the first time offenders were suspended from playing the game for 50 days, the second time offenders were suspended from playing the game for 100 days and the last one was a ban wherein the player cannot further play the game. Due to the usage of steroids the rules in the other games even became tougher. The NFL and the NBA also had to check their players if they were using drugs while playing the game. The coaches in the baseball game needs to be strict while choosing their best players to play the game. The coaches need to be strict with rules of the game and as well as the players to stop using the usage of steroids in the baseball game. A fine or a suspension is considered as a minor part whereas the ultimate decision to ban the player is the correct decision which is made by the commissioner of baseball. . Whereas to find whether its effective or not we can see that the type of reinforcement schedules that random drug testing represent is the variable interval type. As defined, this type of schedule occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. In the case, the reinforcement schedule is done randomly and unexpected. It is typically effective because athletes not aware of the test and when these tests will be taken place. Therefore, athletes are unprepared. Unlike a fixed variable reinforcement schedule, athletes have a fixed time of when the tests will be scheduled so they can prepare and make sure their systems are clean before they take the test. . 2. What are some examples of behaviors in typical organizations that supervisors reward but may actually be detrimental to others or to the organization as a whole? As a manager, what might you do to try to avoid this quandary? . Answer: The main example of a behavior in a typical organization that supervisors reward but may actually be detrimental to others or to the organization as a whole is athletes taking steroids. When athletes take steroids to enhance their performance abilities, they are misleading their managers and their fans. Initially, it may be rewarding because everyone involved gains from the profitability, sports merchandise, increased popularity and success. But in the end, when it is discovered that the athlete achieved recognition with the aid of steroids he destroys his reputation and also his team’s and country’s reputation and the loyalty the fans had for him. If I was a manager, what I might do in order to avoid this quandary, if I was made aware of someone using steroids, I would do a random drug testing as soon as possible instead of having the whole team suffer for that one insubordinate athlete. . If you were the commissioner of baseball, what steps would you take to try to reduce the use of steroids in baseball? Is punishment likely to be the most effective deterrent? Why or why not? Answer: If I was the commissioner of baseball, there are several steps that I would take to try to reduce the use of steroids in baseball. First of all, I would reinforce to all the athletes tha t if someone is caught using steroids they will be thrown off the team. Second, I would continue to do random drug testing. Punishment is not likely to be the most effective deterrent. This will only cause athletes to stop playing and taking steroids for a certain period of time. In addition to it I would also have taken some steps as taken by the commissioner in this case. For the 1st time offender who didn’t know that they were being drugged by their coaches should be suspended for few games. In addition to that the coach must be strictly punished a huge sum of fine plus life time ban from the game. Whereas, for those who have offended it for the first time knowingly, must be suspended for a year plus a heavy amount fine should be imposed on them. And for those who have repeated it should be banned from baseball sport. The second part of the question was â€Å"Is punishment likely to be the most effective deterrent†? For me yes, punishment is the most effective deterrent. It is the competition that everyone loves. The feeling of winning makes many people do anything to achieve it. Even if this means one must cheat to win. Many players used and still use steroids to enhance their muscles so they are stronger during game play. There can be two ways of stopping the player not to use steroids, either by rewarding or by punishing. Rewarding in the sense, we can give incentives to players for not using them but the incentives of winning will be more attractive than these. Therefore one can punish the player if they use those incentives. A player cheats to win money, fans and fame. But if they are found to be using steroids, they will lose their fame and fans and should also be heavily fined. 4. Is it okay to allow potentially unethical behaviors, which on the surface may benefit organizations, to persist? Why or why not? Answer: No, unethical behaviors must not persist even if on the surface they may benefit organizations. For short term it may be beneficial but not in long run. Any unethical behaviors can directly affect the reputation of the organization. And in today’s world a good reputed organization is the most important part of organization building. People like to buy the service or product from a good reputed organization. It creates goodwill of the organization. For example, in context of the given case, organization can be the baseball team and unethical behavior can be the use of steroids by the players. This may help the team to build a strong impression and can help them to win many games as well. But the day general public will learn that the victory is not due to the hard work but rather than steroids, all of their impression will be on stake. They may lose their sponsors, fans and reputation. Same was the case happened with Pakistani cricket team. Few of the players of Pakistani cricket team player, Salman Butt, M. Amir and Asif, were involved in match fixing. They might have earned a lot from that but when it was exposed they were punished. They had to pay double amount of fine of what they earned. In addition to it now none of the companies will like to endorse just players who are involved in unethical activities. In addition to it they lost all their fans. Almost every Pakistani doesn’t like them because they created a bad impression of Pakistan in the global world. As well as destroyed the image of the Pakistani team nationally and internationally. Can you imagine cheating and excellence in the same sentence? What does known cheating and the Hall of Fame have in common? What does shameful and The Hall of Fame have in common? Does known cheating and excellence equal The Hall Of Fame? This debate doesn’t have two sides. There are no hairs to split. There are no counter arguments to argue. Cheating is not how to get ahead. Cheating isn’t even how to compete. Even if you’re never found out, It’s a setup for failure elsewhere in life. Anyone that has admitted or has been proven to have used performance enhancing drugs should never even be considered for the Hall Of Fame.

Case Study At T And T Mobile Merger Essay - 791 Words

Case: ATT and T-Mobile Merger †¢ Question 4 : Should the merger be approved? The ATT and T-Mobile merger should not be approved, as the merger may cause more harm than benefits to consumers and for the related market. A horizontal practice is one that involves mergers and activities in the same industry. A horizontal merger comes under Section 7 of Clayton Act and under Section 2 of Sherman Act, as it would create a monopoly. As ATT and T-Mobile both operates in same industry, the merger is clearly horizontal. The concern with horizontal arrangements is that it may increase market power, leading to lessened competition and higher prices. Many of interest groups(like other companies like SprintNextel, the Competitive Carriers Association, Cellular South, Leap Wireless, MetroPCS, Computer and Communications Industry Association, Yankee Group, group of seven NGOs including Consumer unions , National Hispanic Media Coalition, Future of Music Coalition, etc.) opposed. Most of them expressed concerns that the merger will stifle the competition, may result in increa sed prices for consumers, will reduce innovation and technological progress in the field, and it will leave with fewer options for consumers to shop around for cell phone plans. The decrease in consumer choice happens as the merger will reduce the number of mobile wireless carrier who has decent nationwide coverage. 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